Machismo Excerpt - December 2013
This practice of socializing people into certain gender categories is known as “gender work”, a term coined by Michael Kaufman in 1997 which “refers to the process of internalization of gender relations, which is seen as an element in the construction of our personalities.” Kaufman’s theory is that gender identity is an ongoing process which is nurtured through social interactions over the course of one’s life. This can be applied to most cultures since everyday activities, peer interactions, fashion, entertainment and the overall behavior of children is fostered based on biological gender placement and therefore expected gender identity and roles within society.
The innate control of influential public opinion in Hispanic culture is further manifested through religion and the concept of faith wherein, if a woman ends up with a husband who displays certain bad habits (adultery, alcoholism, or gambling), she may be encouraged to simply pray for his change and blindly trust God’s will. Although there is some Afro-Caribbean influence in religions of the Dominican Republic, Christianity is the primary religion which in essence preaches hegemonic masculinity as a natural force; for example the biblical creation myth of Adam and Eve. In most common versions, Adam is created first by God and Eve is subsequently made from a piece of Adam’s body. It is Eve who takes the blame for eating the forbidden apple in the Garden of Eden and “enticing” Adam to do the same, so they are both condemned and thus all pain in the world is formed through this Original Sin. This story sends negative messages that women are inherently weak willed and cause men to be more vulnerable. The bible is very important in Hispanic culture, especially for Protestants who firmly believe in sola scriptura which means that the bible is the sole scripture for holy knowledge. In addition, God is always considered male in religious teachings and prayers are directed to “the Father”, thereby implementing in people on a spiritual level that men are supposed to be superior.
Music is another significant part of Latin cultures, where song lyrics are used to convey social messages. The book Interrogating Caribbean Masculinity: Theoretical & Empirical Analyses mentions a popular merengue song in the Dominican Republic during the 1990’s entitled, “El Venao” or “the deer” in English. The lyrics tell the tale of a man whose wife is unfaithful and as a result, he is emasculated and ridiculed by the community. The ensuing notoriety of this song is thought to have possibly been a catalyst for many abuses and deaths of women by their jealous husbands or boyfriends. According to the text, it also inspired an annual festival called the “Crown of Horns” or “Fiesta de Cuernos” in a small northwestern town in the Dominican Republic where an unlucky married man was chosen as the cuckold and challenged to disprove his wife’s infidelities or take revenge on her, with the alternative being to carry the public shame of this crown. Reportedly, this festival was officially cancelled in the year 2000 due to the excessive violence it provoked.
The previously mentioned book also points out the role machismo plays in politics, stating that during elections, candidates will often attempt to question their opponent’s masculinity through rumors and propaganda, insinuating the other is not fit to lead if they are not “man enough”. Political unrest has been an important characteristic of Dominican history and culture. One of the most prominent examples being the infamous dictator, Rafael Trujillo whose regime ruled the Dominican Republic from 1930-1961. During this time he implemented a rule requiring every family to post a metal plate in their home which read “En esta casa Trujillo es el Jefe.” This translates to “Trujillo is chief in the house”, it is intended to infiltrate the home and remind all Dominican males what a true man is; not posting the sign would have been considered an act of defiance and resulted in people being labeled political enemies.